One hundred years ago, in 1916, American government policies regarding American Indians were emphasizing assimilation: like other immigrants, according to the assimilationist mantra, Indians would become absorbed into the great American mass. While immigrants from other countries could become citizens, most Indians were not citizens. Under the terms of treaties with the United States, Indians … Continued
American history is filled with accounts of Indians being massacred by the U.S. Army, by American civilians, and others. Some of these “incidents” are well-known to the general public: Wounded Knee, the Washita, and Sand Creek. Others, such as the massacre of Heavy Runner’s Blackfoot band, are less well-known. In 1870, soldiers under the leadership … Continued
At the beginning of the eighteenth century, Indian nations were interacting with many European nations which had invaded the Americas and had claimed for themselves Indian land. These nations included England, France, Spain, Holland, and Sweden. The century was characterized by European exploration to establish their ownership claims and to search for riches, the establishment … Continued
During the first part of the seventeenth century, the European invasion of North America was making the transition from exploration to colonization and exploitation. In his book Laboring in the Fields of the Lord: Spanish Missions and Southeastern Indians , archaeologist Jerald Milanich describes the reasons for the European expansion: “The driving force behind these … Continued
When the Europeans first blundered into the Americas, they found a land that was already occupied and developed. In 1532, Spanish judge Francisco de Vitoria declared that non-Christians could own property and therefore Indians may have title to their land. After the creation of the United States at the end of the eighteenth century, the … Continued
The United States has never been particularly comfortable with the idea of Indian nations and Indian people within its territorial boundaries. Like the British before them, the United States viewed Indians as impediments to “progress” who needed to be removed to make way for non-Indian economic development. At the beginning of the nineteenth century, President … Continued
Following the Civil War in 1868, the United States adopted the Fourteenth Amendment as one of the Reconstruction Amendments. It was intended to deal with issues regarding the rights of former slaves. Section 1. All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States … Continued
During the nineteenth century the United States engaged in three wars with the Seminole Indians in Florida: 1816 to about 1824; 1835 to 1842; and 1855 to1858. Contrary to some popular opinions, there was no traditional overall governmental or political organization among the Seminole at this time. They tended to be politically organized around busk … Continued
During the nineteenth century the United States engaged in three wars with the Seminole Indians in Florida: 1816 to about 1824; 1835 to 1842; and 1855 to 1858. Contrary to some popular opinions, there was no traditional overall governmental or political organization among the Seminole at this time. They tended to be politically organized around … Continued
During the nineteenth century the United States engaged in three wars with the Seminole Indians in Florida: 1816 to about 1824; 1835 to 1842; and 1855 to 1858. Contrary to some popular opinions, there was no traditional overall governmental or political organization among the Seminole at this time. They tended to be politically organized around … Continued
